Permaculture Techniques for the Restoration of Natural Habitats and Wildlife Corridors

Wildlife corridor planting plans

Wildlife corridor planting plans are designed to connect patches of habitat so animals, birds, pollinators, and other species can move more safely through developed landscapes. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service describes wildlife corridors as the routes animals use to complete their life cycles, and both the Service and National Wildlife Federation emphasize that habitat connectivity becomes more critical as development fragments the landscape. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

For homeowners and neighborhood-scale projects, a corridor usually does not mean some grand migration route running behind the garage. It means linking yards, hedgerows, sidewalk strips, pocket habitats, and nearby parks so wildlife can find food, cover, nesting sites, and safe movement pathways. Penn State notes that neighbors can link hedgerows and other natural habitats on their properties to form wildlife corridors, and University of Minnesota’s recent “Habitat at Home” guidance similarly recommends creating and connecting habitat across communities rather than treating each yard as an isolated island. (Penn State Extension)

The planting logic starts with native plants. National Wildlife Federation says native plants are essential because they provide the food and habitat local wildlife evolved with, and its keystone-plant guidance says a relatively small share of native plants supports a disproportionately large share of butterfly and moth species. That matters because caterpillars and other insects are a major part of the food web for birds and other wildlife, so a corridor has to do more than look green. It has to function as habitat. (National Wildlife Federation)

A good planting plan usually works in layers. Start with canopy or small trees where space allows, then add shrubs, native grasses, flowering perennials, and groundcovers. This creates a corridor with multiple uses at once: overhead cover, nesting structure, nectar sources, seed and berry production, shelter near the ground, and a more continuous living edge across the site. Audubon’s habitat resources and Xerces pollinator guidance both stress the value of native plant diversity for creating food and shelter across seasons, rather than relying on a few decorative species that bloom briefly and then contribute very little. (Audubon)

The strongest corridor plans also think in terms of continuity rather than isolated beds. A row of native shrubs along a fence, a pollinator strip beside a driveway, a rain garden tied to a side-yard planting, and a backyard tree with layered understory can all function as connected stepping stones. Minnesota’s 2026 guidance explicitly recommends starting with native plant communities, removing invasive species, and creating habitat at home as part of a larger ecosystem effort, while Penn State’s natural-landscaping guidance encourages neighbor-friendly designs that still improve habitat connectivity. (University of Minnesota Extension)

Invasive plants are one of the easiest ways to sabotage the whole idea. Pennsylvania’s Invasive Replace-ive program frames native-plant replacement as a direct way to support pollinators, birds, beneficial insects, and other wildlife, which is a polite institutional way of saying that if your “corridor” is full of invasives, you are building a biological dead zone with leaves. Replacing invasive hedges and sterile ornamentals with native species is often the fastest corridor upgrade a homeowner can make. (Penn State Extension)

A practical homeowner corridor plan is usually narrow, layered, and repeatable. For example, a front-yard strip might use native grasses and flowering perennials, the side yard might carry a shrub line or bioswale planting, and the backyard might add a native tree, berrying shrubs, leaf litter, and a small unmown or lightly managed edge. NWF also recommends aiming for roughly 50 to 70 percent native planting in a yard to benefit more wildlife, which is useful because most people are retrofitting existing landscapes rather than starting from scratch on a blank site. (The National Wildlife Federation Blog)

Corridors are not just about plants, either. Light pollution, hard fencing, and over-tidy maintenance can break connectivity even in otherwise good habitat. NWF notes that light pollution harms wildlife, so reducing unnecessary night lighting can improve the usefulness of planted habitat, especially for nocturnal species and migrating birds. In the same spirit, leaving some leaf litter, stems, and brushy cover in selected areas makes a corridor more livable than a constantly shaved landscape designed to reassure anxious humans. (National Wildlife Federation)

What makes wildlife corridor planting plans so valuable is that they scale. A single yard will not fix fragmentation on its own, because reality remains irritatingly collective. But connected native plantings across several homes, blocks, campuses, or streets can begin to restore movement pathways and habitat function in places that would otherwise be ecological patchwork. That is the real goal: not ornamental “nature vibes,” but a landscape where living things can actually travel, feed, hide, and reproduce again. (National Wildlife Federation)

Native plant restoration for degraded lots

Native plant restoration on degraded lots starts with realism. Vacant or damaged urban sites often have compacted soil, invasive weeds, rubble, altered drainage, and sometimes contamination, so restoration is less about instant beauty and more about rebuilding basic ecological function. EPA’s urban-soils and brownfields guidance stresses that site history and soil condition matter, especially where fill, demolition debris, or contaminants may be present, and its ecological revitalization guidance frames the goal as returning land to a state that can support functioning, sustainable habitat. (US EPA)

The first step is assessment, not planting. Find out what the lot used to be, how water moves across it, where soil is compacted, and whether contamination is a concern. EPA notes that on urban sites the biggest exposure concern is often direct contact with contaminated soil or dust rather than dramatic plant uptake headlines, which is why testing and risk reduction come first. On questionable sites, cleaner imported soil, mulch cover, raised planting zones, or non-edible habitat plantings may be more appropriate than aggressive digging. (US EPA)

Weed pressure is usually the next major obstacle. NRCS and OSU guidance both emphasize that controlling competing vegetation and the existing weed seed bank is one of the most critical parts of successful establishment. That means restoration is rarely a one-weekend event. Mowing, smothering, targeted herbicide use where appropriate, repeated shallow disturbance in some settings, or staged clearing may all be part of the plan. OSU also warns that overly aggressive site preparation can expose bare soil, trigger erosion, and sometimes create a fresh wave of weeds, so the objective is controlled preparation, not scorched-earth enthusiasm. (Natural Resources Conservation Service)

Soil rebuilding matters as much as species choice. Degraded lots often need improved infiltration, more organic matter, and some relief from compaction before natives can establish well. EPA’s recent compost report notes that compost can improve soil health and plant yield in degraded urban soils and improve water infiltration and retention. Its urban-forestry fact sheet also points to plants and trees as tools for improving degraded soil, reducing heat, and expanding habitat. In practice, that usually means adding compost where appropriate, protecting the surface with mulch, and avoiding unnecessary disturbance once the site is planted. (US EPA)

Plant selection should be based on site conditions, not generic “native” branding. Use species adapted to the lot’s actual moisture, sun, and soil conditions, and favor a mix of grasses, forbs, and shrubs where space allows so the site gains structure, seasonal bloom, root diversity, and longer-term stability. NRCS guidance on restoration planting repeatedly stresses using adapted or locally appropriate plant material, and on degraded sites that often means choosing tough early-establishing natives first, then increasing diversity as the lot stabilizes. Historical vegetation, nearby remnant plant communities, and regional native-plant lists are better guides than seed packets designed for mass-market optimism. (Natural Resources Conservation Service)

For many degraded lots, phased restoration is the smartest approach. Year one may focus on assessment, weed control, erosion control, and a simple stabilizing cover of hardy natives. Later phases can add shrubs, trees, and more diverse forbs once the site is less hostile. EPA’s ecological revitalization materials and NRCS restoration guidance both support this kind of functional, staged approach, where the first goal is to get protective vegetation established and the later goal is to build a more complex habitat. Humans love before-and-after fantasies, but ecosystems usually recover in drafts. (US EPA)

Maintenance is part of restoration, not evidence of failure. Newly restored lots need watering during establishment, weed follow-up, mulch renewal, and periodic monitoring for erosion, invasives, and plant loss. NRCS’s revegetation guidance notes that even after desirable species are installed, weed control is often an ongoing component because the buried seed bank can keep reappearing. A restored lot becomes resilient not because it was planted once, but because the first few years are managed well enough for natives to take hold and start doing the work themselves. (Natural Resources Conservation Service)

What makes native restoration so valuable on degraded lots is that it solves several problems at once. It can stabilize soil, reduce runoff and dust, cool heat-trapping vacant land, rebuild habitat, and turn neglected parcels into functioning green space. EPA’s brownfields and urban-forestry materials make exactly that case: restoration is not just cosmetic improvement, but a way to turn impaired sites into community assets with ecological value. That is the real shift here. Not decorating damage, but repairing function. (US EPA)

Here’s a clean section you can drop into the article. Swales and ponds for habitat recovery, because sometimes the smartest restoration move is to stop hustling water off the land like it committed a crime.

Swales and ponds for habitat recovery

Swales and ponds can be powerful habitat-recovery tools because they reshape how water moves through a site. Vegetated swales are shallow channels that slow runoff, encourage infiltration, and trap sediment and pollutants, while ponds create longer-lasting wet habitat that can support amphibians, insects, birds, and other wildlife when they are designed and planted well. EPA and Massachusetts’ homeowner stormwater guidance both describe vegetated swales as green infrastructure that slows runoff and promotes pooling, infiltration, and treatment rather than sending water quickly downstream. (Massachusetts Government)

For habitat recovery, the key value of a swale is not just drainage. It is moisture retention and vegetation establishment. NRCS’s home drainage guide notes that a meandering swale can increase the time water spends in the feature, which improves infiltration and helps trap pollutants and sediment. Alabama Extension similarly describes berms and swales as passive water-harvesting features that hold and retain water around plantings. In restoration terms, that means swales can turn flashy runoff into slower, more usable soil moisture for native grasses, shrubs, trees, and wet-edge plants. (Natural Resources Conservation Service)

Ponds add a different kind of ecological function. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s native-landscaping guide notes that even puddles, pools, or a small pond can provide habitat for amphibians and aquatic insects, while Penn State’s backyard-pond guidance says ponds can attract birds, insects, amphibians, and reptiles when basic water and cover needs are met. In a degraded landscape, that makes ponds useful not just as stormwater features but as biodiversity nodes, especially where standing or seasonal water used to exist and has been drained or simplified away. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

The strongest recovery projects usually combine the two. A swale can intercept and spread runoff across the site, feeding soil and planted edges, while a pond or wet basin lower on the site can hold water longer and create deeper habitat. Penn State’s stormwater-quality guidance says constructed wetlands and retention ponds provide storage where sediments can settle and biological processes can develop, which is exactly why linked water features often outperform one isolated basin. Water slowed uphill, spread through vegetation, and stored lower down supports more habitat structure than a single hard-edged hole in the ground. (Penn State Extension)

Planting design matters as much as excavation. Swales and pond edges work best when planted in zones: moisture-loving species in the lowest or wettest areas, tougher meadow or upland natives on shoulders and berms, and shrubs or small trees where roots can stabilize soil without compromising the structure. University of Maryland’s living-landscapes guidance specifically recommends native plants in drainage swales, bioswales, rain gardens, and buffer strips, and Fish & Wildlife Service materials emphasize native vegetation buffers along pond and wetland edges. That layered native planting is what turns a stormwater feature into functioning habitat instead of a maintenance problem with water in it. (University of Maryland Extension)

Siting is where people get reckless. Swales and ponds need to fit the site’s slope, soils, overflow path, and nearby structures. EPA’s green-infrastructure materials say swales are suited to small drainage areas and low runoff, while stormwater manuals note that suitability depends on soil type, slope, and the dimensions of the swale system. For homeowners, the practical lesson is simple: these features belong where they can safely slow and infiltrate water, not where they threaten foundations, septic systems, or neighbors with a surprise wetland. (US EPA)

There is also a management difference between a habitat pond and a neglected pond. Penn State’s pond-wildlife guidance notes that ponds naturally attract diverse wildlife but can also bring management challenges, and its pond-safety guidance recommends clear safety planning around residential ponds. Healthy ponds need vegetated edges, sediment control, and periodic maintenance, not steep sterile banks and random fish introductions that wreck amphibian breeding habitat. The wildlife benefit comes from structure, water quality, and native cover, not from digging a basin and wandering off proudly. (Penn State Extension)

One common worry is mosquitoes, which is fair, because humans do enjoy creating stagnant water and then acting betrayed by biology. The practical fix is design and maintenance: varied pond depth, healthy aquatic food webs, emergent vegetation, water movement where appropriate, and avoiding shallow nutrient-rich stagnation. Penn State’s healthy-pond guidance focuses on water quality and nuisance prevention, and backyard-wildlife pond guidance frames ponds as managed habitat rather than decorative standing water. A functioning pond with predators and decent water quality is a different thing from a neglected tub of larvae. (Penn State Extension)

What makes swales and ponds so useful for habitat recovery is that they restore process, not just appearance. They slow runoff, increase infiltration, create wet and dry edge zones, support native plants, and provide food, cover, and breeding habitat across seasons. Done well, they help a site recover hydrologic function and ecological complexity at the same time, which is a lot more valuable than landscaping that only knows how to look tidy from the street. (Massachusetts Government)

Keystone species in regenerative landscapes

In regenerative landscapes, keystone species are the plants or animals whose influence is far larger than their numbers alone would suggest. The National Park Service defines keystone species as those with a disproportionate effect on the persistence and composition of a biological community, and notes that protecting them helps keep ecosystems diverse and high-functioning. In practice, that means a regenerative landscape should not just aim for “more species.” It should prioritize the species that hold food webs, nutrient cycling, shelter, and habitat structure together. (National Park Service)

For home-scale and community-scale landscapes, the most useful keystone idea is often plant-centered. National Wildlife Federation’s keystone-plant work, based on University of Delaware research, argues that a relatively small set of native plants forms the backbone of local food webs because they support especially large numbers of butterfly and moth species, specialist bees, and the animals that feed on those insects. NWF notes, for example, that native oaks can support more than 550 caterpillar species in one region, and in some coverage even more in broader North American comparisons. That matters because caterpillars and other insects are not just decorative biodiversity. They are protein for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and many other animals. (National Wildlife Federation)

This is why regenerative landscapes often get more ecological return from choosing the right native tree or shrub than from scattering a random assortment of “pollinator plants.” A few keystone genera can support huge portions of the local food web, while many attractive ornamentals support very little. Homegrown National Park summarizes this by saying that a few genera of native plants form the backbone of local food webs, and NWF’s regional keystone-plant guides are explicitly organized around host plants for caterpillars and pollen sources for specialist bees. The lesson is annoyingly simple: not all green things are equally alive to wildlife. (Homegrown National Park)

Keystone species in regenerative landscapes are not limited to plants. NPS notes that animals such as beaver, prairie dogs, and pocket gophers can function as keystone species because they physically modify habitat in ways that support many other organisms. NPS also describes mountain lions as keystone species whose top-down effects can regulate prey abundance and behavior, reducing herbivory and helping maintain biodiversity. In larger restoration settings, this means regenerative design is partly about rebuilding ecological roles, not just replanting vegetation. Even when a homeowner cannot restore a predator, they can still design for the habitat structures and food-web relationships that keystone species help sustain. (National Park Service)

In practical landscape design, keystone thinking changes plant selection. Instead of asking only which species are drought-tolerant, pretty, or easy to find, you ask which native plants support the most life. Xerces Society guidance similarly emphasizes using native flowering plants that provide nectar and pollen, while also highlighting host plants for caterpillars of butterflies and moths. That host-plant piece is crucial. A landscape full of nectar flowers but no larval host plants is like building a city with cafés and no housing, which is a very human kind of planning failure. (Xerces)

For regenerative landscapes, the strongest planting plans usually combine keystone woody plants with supportive herbaceous layers. A native oak, willow, cherry, or other regionally important woody species can provide the structural and food-web foundation, while asters, goldenrods, sunflowers, milkweeds, and other native perennials extend nectar, pollen, and host resources across seasons. NWF’s wildlife-gardening guidance highlights goldenrods, asters, and sunflowers for fall support, and Xerces repeatedly recommends pairing nectar plants with host plants in restoration and pollinator habitat work. In other words, keystone species are the backbone, not the whole body. (National Wildlife Federation)

The regenerative value of keystone species is that they make landscapes more functional, not just more diverse on paper. By supporting more insects, they feed more birds. By creating shade, litter, roots, or browse, they shape microclimate and soil processes. By structuring habitat, they make it easier for other native species to persist. That is why NPS and other conservation sources treat keystone species as central to ecosystem function rather than as another interesting label in ecology trivia. A regenerative landscape built around keystone species is more likely to recover ecological processes, not merely collect species names. (National Park Service)

So the design principle is straightforward: start with the native species that do the most work. Build around regionally appropriate keystone plants, add the host plants and floral resources that extend food-web support, and avoid wasting precious space on species that contribute little beyond looking respectable from the sidewalk. In regenerative landscapes, keystone species are leverage points. And in a world humans have simplified past the point of good sense, leverage points are worth an awful lot. (National Wildlife Federation)

Permaculture for fragmented suburban habitats

Permaculture can be especially useful in fragmented suburban habitats because it works at the scale where fragmentation often happens: private lots, fence lines, cul-de-sacs, drainage edges, and leftover strips of yard. University of Minnesota Extension notes that many native habitats now persist on small parcels such as backyards, neighborhood parks, woodlots, and shorelines, and that reducing turfgrass while adding native wildflowers, grasses, shrubs, and trees can improve habitat quality and help connect isolated habitat patches across a neighborhood. In other words, suburban permaculture is not just about growing food or reducing maintenance. It is about turning disconnected yards into linked pieces of living habitat. (University of Minnesota Extension)

That connectivity matters more than it might seem from one backyard. A Forest Service study on Boston found that residential yards, especially backyards, made up most of the canopy links in the urban forest network and played an important role in maintaining overall tree-canopy connectivity. The researchers concluded that protecting and expanding tree cover in yards is a practical way to maintain and increase urban landscape connectivity. For suburban permaculture, that means private landscapes are not ecological leftovers. They are often the missing links. (Forest Service R&D)

The first design move is to think in corridors, stepping stones, and edges instead of isolated beds. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service describes wildlife corridors as the routes animals use to complete their life cycles, and its guidance for monarchs points directly to backyard planting as a way to restore shrinking food sources such as milkweed and nectar plants. In suburban settings, a corridor might be a line of native shrubs along a fence, a patch of meadow replacing part of a lawn, a rain garden tied to a side-yard planting, or a sequence of trees and understory plants that lets birds, pollinators, and beneficial insects move across the block with less exposure and more food. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Native plant communities are the backbone of that strategy. UMN says healthy native plant communities are the foundation of resilient ecosystems because they evolved with native insects, birds, and other animals and are more likely to provide the food, shelter, and seasonal resources those species need. National Wildlife Federation similarly recommends striving for about 70% native plants in a habitat garden, precisely because native plants do far more ecological work than most ornamental placeholders. A suburban permaculture plan aimed at fragmentation should therefore start by replacing pieces of lawn and low-value ornamental planting with layered native trees, shrubs, grasses, and flowering perennials. (University of Minnesota Extension)

Structure matters almost as much as species. UMN emphasizes habitat diversity and layering, from ground-level grasses and wildflowers to fruiting shrubs and canopy trees, because structural diversity supports a wider range of wildlife. That fits permaculture perfectly. A fragmented suburban lot can use canopy trees for shade and movement cover, shrubs for nesting and berries, dense herbaceous layers for pollinators, and leaf litter or mulch zones for insects and soil life. The point is not to make every yard look wild in the same way. It is to build enough layered habitat that wildlife can feed, shelter, and move through the neighborhood instead of hitting one sterile lawn after another. (University of Minnesota Extension)

Trees are especially important in suburban repair work because they do several jobs at once. University of Maryland Extension says planting mostly native trees helps create resilient neighborhoods while also providing shade, cooling, wildlife habitat, and stormwater management. It also notes that trees intercept and soak up rainwater, stabilize the ground, and reduce runoff. In a fragmented suburb, that makes tree planting a classic permaculture move: one element serving multiple functions while also helping reconnect canopy habitat across parcels. (University of Maryland Extension)

A good suburban permaculture plan also removes what blocks connectivity. UMN highlights invasive-species removal as one of the most important first steps on any property, noting that native vegetation often begins to recover once invasive competition is reduced. Maryland Extension adds that pesticides, including some labeled organic or natural, can harm pollinators and other non-target insects. So a fragmented-habitat strategy is not just about adding more plants. It is also about removing invasive shrubs, reducing chemical disturbance, and letting the landscape support insects and other small organisms that larger wildlife depends on. (University of Minnesota Extension)

The practical homeowner version is fairly straightforward: shrink the lawn, plant native canopy trees where possible, build hedgerows or shrub borders along property lines, add pollinator-rich sunny patches, keep some leaf litter and dense cover, and coordinate with neighbors when possible. Penn State’s natural-landscaping guidance specifically notes that neighbors can link hedgerows and other natural habitats on their properties to form wildlife corridors. That is the real suburban opportunity. One yard helps a little; several adjacent yards managed with the same logic begin to function like a connected habitat network. (Penn State Extension)

What makes permaculture so useful here is that it accepts the site as it is and still looks for leverage. It does not require a pristine landscape or a giant rural acreage. It works with the fragments humans left behind and tries to stitch them back together through native planting, water management, soil building, layered structure, and cooperation across boundaries. In fragmented suburbs, that is not just good gardening. It is one of the more realistic forms of ecological repair available to ordinary homeowners. (University of Minnesota Extension)

Community habitat restoration workshops

Community habitat restoration workshops work best when they combine education with real field practice. Instead of treating restoration as a one-day volunteer spectacle, strong workshops teach people how to read a site, identify native and invasive plants, understand basic hydrology and soil conditions, and then apply that knowledge through planting, weed control, monitoring, or maintenance. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service training materials on habitat restoration fundamentals emphasize exactly those steps: planning, seed-mix or plant selection, site preparation, weed abatement, installation, and long-term management. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

That hands-on structure matters because habitat restoration is a skill, not a vibe. WSU Extension’s habitat restoration volunteer program describes community work that includes native planting, non-native plant removal, and adding in-stream features, while also noting the ecological goals behind those tasks, such as improving habitat, reducing contaminants, and restoring stream conditions. In other words, the best workshops do not just give people tools and point at a patch of ground. They connect every task to an ecological purpose so participants understand what they are doing and why it matters. (WSU Extension)

A good workshop usually has three parts. First comes a short field-based teaching segment on site conditions, target habitat, and key species. Second comes the actual restoration work, such as planting natives, removing invasives, mulching, installing erosion control, or collecting seed. Third comes follow-up on monitoring and maintenance, because restoration tends to fail when humans act as though planting day was the finish line instead of the beginning. FWS workshop summaries on grassland restoration similarly emphasize case studies, prioritizing areas for restoration, tool-sharing, and lessons learned from on-the-ground management rather than one-off action without follow-through. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Community workshops are also valuable because they build local stewardship capacity, not just habitat. NOAA’s community-engagement materials say volunteer and citizen-science programs help develop local environmental expertise and community resilience, while NOAA partner examples highlight workshops, field trips, and volunteer reforestation as ways to build community capacity around restoration. That is one of the strongest arguments for these workshops: they create a neighborhood-scale knowledge base, so restoration is not dependent on a single expert or a single grant cycle. (sanctuaries.noaa.gov)

For beginners, the most teachable workshop topics are usually the least glamorous. Native versus invasive plant identification, mulch and watering practices for new plantings, pollinator habitat basics, soil protection, and simple monitoring methods all translate well to school grounds, parks, vacant lots, stream edges, and neighborhood green spaces. FWS’s schoolyard habitat guide frames restoration as community engagement through planning, installation, and stewardship, and extension-style volunteer programs consistently pair classroom or briefing time with repeated field practice. That repetition matters because people retain far more from returning to the same site across seasons than from a single ceremonial planting day. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

The strongest community habitat restoration workshops also lower barriers to participation. The Presidio’s Habitat Stewards program explicitly notes that training and tools are provided and that no experience is necessary, which is a useful model for public-facing events. If a workshop expects people to show up already knowing restoration ecology, plant ID, and tool safety, it is not really community education. It is unpaid labor with a nicer flyer. (The Presidio (San Francisco))

There is also a workforce and leadership angle. Programs such as Master Naturalist and watershed-steward training pair structured learning with volunteer service requirements, creating a pipeline from beginner interest to sustained local leadership. Illinois Extension, Delaware Cooperative Extension, and Penn State all describe volunteer training models that combine field and classroom learning with service hours in stewardship, education, and habitat-related projects. That is useful because community restoration gets much sturdier when some participants grow into organizers, monitors, and peer mentors instead of staying first-timers forever. (Illinois Extension)

What makes these workshops so effective is that they restore two things at once: habitat and human capacity. A neighborhood that learns how to identify invasives, plant natives correctly, monitor outcomes, and maintain sites over time is much harder to knock back into ecological neglect. That is the real point. Not a single inspiring Saturday with gloves and saplings, but a repeatable local practice of caring for land together. In a fragmented and damaged landscape, that kind of shared competence is almost as valuable as the plants themselves. (WSU Extension)